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NTRODUCTION: Anyone who appreciates art, art history or architecture will find Turkey irresistible. Turkey has a rich and vibrant history extending over 9,000 years. With it’s strategic location, Turkey has been at the cross-road of ancient civilizations and one can find examples from virtually every major period or culture of the ancient world. During our tour of Turkey we visited sites, structures and artifacts from many of these cultures and I would like to highlight some of these. As a footnote I wish to add that the following materials are topics which a great deal of material and resources are available. This report is to meant to highlight the wealth of artistic treasures located in Turkey.CHRONOLOGY: A brief chronology of Anatolian Civilizations.
ANCIENT TIMES TROUGH THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
Neolithic and Early Bronze Age - 8000-2000BC
Assyrian Trading Colonies 1950-1750BC
Hittite Empire 1750-700BC
Phyrigian, Urartian and Lydian 750-300BC
Ionian 1050-300BC
Persian 545 333BC
Hellenistic 333-30BC
Roman Empire 30BC-395AD
Early Christian and Byzantine 330AD-1453AD
ISALMIC
Seljuk Empire 1077-1308AD
Ottoman Empire 1299-1920AD
Turkish Republic 1920-
COMMENTARY: Of the many cultures and artistic periods represented in Turkey I would like to focus on Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and the Seljuk Empire in this portion of my report. As people come into contact with previous civilizations they intermingle, conquer, borrow and build upon the previous civilization. Turkey provides an excellent example of this relationship. In Ankara, Istanbul or other Turkish cities one will find examples of each culture that inhabited the area. With this in mind I would like to retrace our journeys and highlight specific artistic elements from several of the cities we visited.
Ankara – The capital city of Turkey. Ataturk established the city as his capital far removed from the imperial trappings of Istanbul. Located in central Anatolia its history is rich. Originally a Hittite capitol it later saw Phrygian occupation, was visited by Alexander, annexed to Rome in 25 BC, held by the Byzantines and later the Seljuk empire.
The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations located in Ankara houses many intriguing artifacts dating from the Neolithic period through Hittites. Objects from Chatal Huyuk, one of the oldest known communities known, include a mural depicting the city and landscape and a variety of clay and bronze idols. Also housed in the museum are some of the finest examples of ancient cultures. Including magnificent Hittite relief’s from Carchemish dating from the second half of the 8th century BC. Ankara also has some fine examples of Roman and Byzantine art; The Temple of Augustus & Rome, the Column of Julian and one of the best preserved Roman baths in the world all dating from the 3rd century AD.
Aside from the Ancient works Ankara holds some interesting 20th century public art. These pieces are similar to the social realism style seen in the United States and elsewhere at approximitly the same period. These large scale figurative pieces usually depicting Ataturk. Also the Parliament building fits in to this overall style quite well. Designed by a Clemens Holzmeister in 1938 and approved by Ataturk. The construction was interrupted by WWII and did not open until 1961. Its style along with the Ataturk Mausoleum follows a Severe Deco style again reminiscent of some structures in Nazi Germany.
Konya – The Central Anatolian City of Konya provides the visitor with the remains of the Seljuk Empire. The Seljuks were the first Islamic Empire who originated from Persia. Konya served as the capital of the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century AD. Noted for their patronage of the arts and creation of religious schools (Medressi). The Seljuk style is known for it’s simple, plain structures with elaborate portals carved in stone and hand painted tiles in the interiors. The Great Karatay Medressi provides examples of both. It’s portal carved with ornate geometric patterns and Arabic script dates from 1251 AD as does the blue tile in the interior. Also located in Konya is the Museum or shrine of Mevlana a 13th century mystic. Housed in the museum with its distinctive turquoise domes are more examples of the Seljuk and Islamic styles of decoration. Again the ornate stone carvings in the portal area, Arabic script paintings decorate the interior of the central dome, glass decoration and illuminated manuscripts.
Cappadocia – One of the most fascinating sites of our trip. The distinctive Chimney caps were formations created by wind and water erosion of a volcanic eruption that occurred over 10 million years ago. Subsequent peoples carved into them to create homes, and churches. Most appealing to the art lover is the series of rock cut structures with paintings depicting Christian themes located in the Goreme Valley. The Dark Church, the Sandal Church and the Church of St. Barbara provide excellent examples of Early Christian fresco painting dating from the 11th and 12th centuries.
Pamukkale – More renown for it’s white calcium formations. Pamukkale originally served as a Roman "Health Spa" established by Eumenes II king of Pergamum in 190BC. It later flourished under Byzantine rule. Among the impressive ruins one can find the remains of a Byzantine Church, an impressive necropolis and Temple of Apollo. Probably most impressive is the Roman Theater with the capacity of 7000 spectators. Although not as famous as the theater at Ephesus it is better preserved complete with stage, architectural backdrop and a large off stage area.
Aphrodesias – This Early Bronze Age settlement grew into a favorite site for visitors by the 8th century BC. Most known for its Temple of Aphrodite also found there is a well-preserved stadium, odeum, agora and a theater. Probably most impressive are the remains of the Temple of Aphrodesias. The Temple was extensively reworked during Christian times, but what remains is impressive and exhibits the quality carving techniques known for the Aphrodisiac School. The Museum houses a fine collection of sculpture produced during Roman times. Aphrodesias was also known for it’s sculptural school and it attracted fine carvers drawn to the area by the large marble quarries located near by. The Museum of Aphrodesias holds an impressive collection of sculpture produced at the location including freestanding, relief and sarcophagus carvings.
Ephesus The best preserved Classical City in the Eastern Mediterranean region. The history of the city dates back to 800 BC as a sanctuary of Cybele/Artemis and by 600BC a Temple dedicated to Artimis had been erected close to the present day city. In 356BC the Temple was destroyed in a fire. Rebuilt it was recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Most of what remains today are Roman Ephesus and it has all the elements required of a Roman City. An Arcadian, A Gymnasium and Stadium dating from the 2nd century AD, the Great Theater scene of the demonstration of Demetrius the silversmith, the Temple of Hadrian and probably most impressive the Library of Celsus also dating from the 2nd century AD provides an excellent example of Hellenistic architecture.
Istanbul- A city of primarily Byzantine and Imperial Ottoman sites. Located on the strategic Bosphorus and Sea of Marmara, the earliest settlement dates back to 1000BC. The ancient city of Byzantium was "Reestablished" as the "New Rome" by Constantine in 324AD.
Imperial Constantinople - Much remains of ancient Constantinople and its Emperors monuments. Most notable upon arrival to present day Istanbul are the impressive city walls. Portions of the walls are original while some sections are clearly rebuilt. Also a large section of an Aquaduct and the very impressive underground cistern still exist as reminders of Constantinolpe’s Imperial past. Probably most famous is the Early Christian Church, Hagia Sophia (the Church of the Holy Wisdom) built during the reign of Justinian in 532-37AD and designed by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. Although used later as a Muslim mosque it is an excellent example of the central planned Christian church. Although most of the familiar mosaics have been removed some have been restored and depict the Byzantine style. Not as famous and off the path is Aya Sophia or "Little Sophia" Erected in 561AD as a private church to Justinian and Theodora. Aya Sophia is today a functioning mosque and the original mosaics gone but a structure with a similar floorplan to the famous Byzantine church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. Located in the same area is the Mosaic Museum. This museum sits atop the remains of a Byzantine floor mosaic dating from 500AD. The enormous mosaic depicts hunting and mythological scenes. This mosaic provides wonderful example of the Byzantine mosaic technique. Another fine example of Byzantine mosaic and fresco technique can be found at the Church of Chora or the Church outside the wall. The Church itself was rebuilt in the 11th century and the mosaics and paintings date from 1320AD. The scenes are excellent examples of the Byzantine style and depict the life, teachings and death of Christ and the Virgin. Among the images are the famous Christ as Pantocrater and the fresco of Christ rescuing Adam and Eve.
Ottoman Istanbul - 1453 sees Mehmet the Conqueror takes Constantinople and the beginning of the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul. Most notable upon viewing the skyline of the city are the numours mosques. The mosque construction is one of the most important heritages of the Muslims and the Ottoman Empire. Most notable if the Blue Mosque commissioned by Sultan Ahmet I and completed in 1606-16. Known for it’s distinctive six minirets and interior blue tile painted in the "Iznik" style. The Mosque of Sultan Suleyman is the largest mosque in Istanbul. Designed for the Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent in 1550 by the great architect Sinan and is considered his masterpiece. The Rustem Pasa Mosque built in 1561 is a less known but equally beautiful structure with exquisite tiles in the interior. Last of the many impressive mosques is Fethiye Camii or Mosque of the Conquest. Built in the 12th century less known for it’s architectural splendor but more for it’s historical significance. It was here where Mehmet the Conqueror meet the Orthodox Patriarch shortly after the fall of the city.
The Archeological Museums are actually three separate museums including the Archaeological Museum and The Museum of the Ancient Near East. Housed in the museums is an impressive collection of artifacts from the ancient near east including relief’s of the Ishtars Gate from Babylon, figurines, seals, cuneiform tablets and relief’s from Summarian, Assyrian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Hittite periods. An impressive collection Greek and Roman sculpture including the famous "Sarcophagus of Alexander" an exquisite carved sarcophagus in the Hellenistic style.
CONCLUSION – Turkey’s artistic heritage is extremely deep. This report is meant as an overview of only a few of the many sites and civilizations that were visited during the Fulbright-Hays Turkish Study program during the summer of 1998. Following are some resources used in preparation for my visit of the various sites and locations.
RESOURCES
Janson, H.W.,History of Art, Harry Abrams, New
York, 1991
Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1989
Richter, Gisela, A Handbook of Greek Art, Da Capo Press, New York, 1987
Myers and Copplestone, The Classical World, Harlem, 1965
Bayral, Mete, Secret Ephesus, Izmir, 1985
Turner, Jane, The Dictionary of Art, New York, NY, 1996
Moss, Christopher and Kiefer, Katherine, Byzantine East, Latin West, Princeton, NJ
1993
Aksit, Ilhan, Cappadocia, Istanbul, 1997
Akurgal, Ekrem, Ancient Civilizations and Ruins in Turkey, Istanbul: Net
Turistik Yayżn, 1993
Grabar, Oleg, Formation of Islamic Art (particularly the introduction) ,New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1987
Ertug, A., The Seljuks, a Journey through Anatolian Architecture, Istanbul, 1991
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