Barry W. Baker
Fulbright-Hayes Professional Development Seminar in Turkey
Web Project

Listed below are brief descriptions of the major archaeological divisions of Turkey (periods, dates and edited text from http://home.vicnet.net.au/~focus/civi_mn1.htm). For additional information, see the bibliography and additional web links below.

Archaeological Periods of Turkey

Neolithic Age (9000-5000 B.C.): Two of the most well known and earliest settlements during this period are Hacilar and Catalhoyuk (7000-6000 BC), near the city of Konya in Central Anatolia. The people of these two settlements lived in sun-dried brick houses with colorful drawings on the interior walls representing their environments and livestock.

Chalcolithic Age (5000-3000 B.C.): The first copper implements were used during this period.

Bronze Age (3000-2000 B.C.): Bronze was used extensively for tools during this age.

Troia-I (3000-2500 B.C.) became the most extensive of Anatolian settlements during this period.

Hatti Civilization (2500-2000 B.C.): City kingdoms dominated the settlement units during this period. There are signs of Mesopotamian influence on Hatti art and culture. Examples of cities include Mahmatlar, Horoztepe, Alacahoyuk and Hattus.

Troia-II Settlement (2500-2000 B.C.): First excavations were conducted in 1870 by a German businessman, after he imagined the whereabouts of the city from his readings of Homer's epic poem.

Hatti and Hittite Principalities Period (2000-1750 B.C.): By the end of the 3rd millennium B.C., a large scale migration took place mainly from North Europa to the south.

Great Hittite Kingdom (1750-1200 B.C.): By 1750 B.C., Hittites took control of a large part of Anatolia and set their first Kingdom at Nesa, near Kultepe in central Anatolia. The old city of Bogazkoy was declared the capital of the Kingdom and the name of the city was changed to Hatusa. Hattusili became the first king of the Hittites. Hittites used chariots against the Egyptian army, for the first time in the history of wars. The Egyptians lost the war. Hittites used both cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions. They were influenced by Hatti civilization to a great extent in religion, mythology, art and culture.

Hurri Civilization: Hurri civilization was established around eastern Anatolia and ruled by the Mitanni kingdom.

Troia -VI Civilization (1800-1275 B.C.): The Troia-VI civilization was concurrent with the Great Hittite Kingdom. They established their kingdom on the ruins of Troia-V near Canakkale in the northwest region of Anatolia. Troians are thought to be relatives of Mykens from Crete. Their settlement was mentioned in the Iliad (epic poem of Homer) as the city of Ilion. The city kingdom was abandoned following a migration of Indo-European groups from the Balkans into the region. A major earthquake devastated the city around 1200 B.C.

Aegean Migration and Invasion from Balkans (1200 B.C.): A large migration from the Balkans region swept across Anatolia starting in the 13th century B.C. Many local populations were destroyed. Troia VI and Hittites were among the first victims.

Anatolian Principalities During the Iron Age (1200-700 B.C.): There were many small and large principalities throughout Anatolia during this age (1200-700 B.C.)., including late Hittite principalities throughout southeastern Anatolia and Syria, Urartus around the eastern Anatolian plateau, Frygians and Lydians at central Anatolia and Karians and Lykians at southwestern Anatolia.

Urartu Civilization (900-600 B.C.): The people called Urartus spoke a dialect of Hurri language that was totally different than the common Anatolian languages of Indo-European origin. Urartus were known to be very skillful at bronze workmanship.

The Civilization of Frygia (750-300 B.C.): Frygians migrated from the Balkans in 1200 B.C., but established their first political entity as a state in 750 B.C. They were incorporated into local cultures and became more Anatolian than their original past. They were influenced by the late Hittite principalities and Hellenic groups.

Lydia, Caria and Lycia Civilizations (700-300 B.C.): During the Iron Age three civilizations, Lydia, Karia and Lycia existed in the western provinces of Anatolia. Lycia is famous for its carved rock tombs.

Ion Civilization (1050-300 B.C.): The city of Miletos is an example of this period. During the period, a new generation of "philosophers of nature" began to take a more scientific approach to study of the natural world. These scientists, by using the knowledge they accumulated during their visits to Egypt and Mesopotamia and synthesizing this knowledge with their new philosophy, contributed to the establishment of modern day mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and philosophy.

Persian Conquest (545-383 B.C.): Persian invasion of Anatolia pointed to the end of influence by many Ionian cities.

Hellenistic and Roman Age (333 B.C. -395 A.D.): Alexander the Great defeated the Persians in 334 B.C., ushering in a new period of Roman influence. Cities including Ephesus, Magnesia, Assos, Bergama, Tralleis, Miletos and Didyma dominated the region.

Byzantine Civilization (330-1453 A.D.): As the traditional Roman influence on Anatolian art and architecture started to decay by the end of 3rd century A.D., a new source of influence started to play a dominant role; Christianity and Byzantine influence. Constantinopolis (Istanbul), built by Emperor Constantine in 330 A.D., became the center of this emerging new architectural excellence. Constantinopolis became a major arts and cultural center between 330-565 A.D.

Seljuk Civilization (1071-1300 A.D.): Seljuk Turks entered Anatolia and were enculturated with existing Indo-European cultures. Advances were made in the sciences. The Gothic style brick buildings that we see in some European countries today were influenced by Seljuks.

Ottomans (1299-1923 A.D.): The power and architecture of the Ottoman empire reached its zenith with Suleyman the Magnificent, whose architect Sinan embellished Ottoman cities with palaces, mosques, bridges and various other kinds of buildings.

For Further Reading:

Akurgal, Edrem. 1962. The Art of the Hittites. London.

Akurgal, Edrem. 1993. Ancient Civilizations and Ruins of Turkey. Net Turistik Yayinlar A.S.

Andrews, Peter. 1989. Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Velag, Wiesbaden.

Bayraktar, Vehbi. 1987. Pergamon. Net Turistik Yayinlar A.S.

Bean, G. E. 1966. Aegean Turkey. London.

Buitenhuis, H., and A. T. Clason (editors). 1993. Archaeozoology of the Near East: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Archaeozoology of Southwestern Asia and Adjacent Areas. Universal Book Services, Dr. W. Backhuys, Leiden.

Erim, Kenan T. 1986. Aphrodisias: City of Venus Aphrodite. New York / London.

Erim, Kenan T. 1997. Aphrodisias, 5th edition. Net Turistik Yayinlar A.S.

Eserler, Ahsap. 1992. Gordion: Wooden Furniture. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, Turkey.

Idil, Vedat. 1997. Ankara: The Ancient Sites and Museums. Net Turistik Yayinlar A.S.

Keskin, Naci. 1997. Ephesus. Keskin Color Kartpostalcilik Ltd., Sti. Matbassi.

Mellaart, J. 1967. Catal Hoyuk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolie. London.

Perkins, Dexter, Jr. 1968. Fauna of Catal Huyuk: Evidence for Early Cattle Domestication in Anatolia. Science 164:177-179.

Schliemann, Heinrich. 1884. Troja: Results of the Latest Researches and Discoveries on the Site of Homer's Troy. London / New York.

Shane, Orrion, III, and Mine Kucuk. 1998. The World's First City. Archaeology 51(2):43-47.

Temizsoy, I., et al. 1997. The Anatolian Civilizations Museum. Ankara, Turkey.

Toksoz, Cemil. 1977. A Travel Guide to the Historic Treasures of Turkey. Istanbul.

Toksoz, Cemil. 1979. Ancient Cities of Western Anatolia. Istanbul.

Toksoz, Cemil. 1998. Pamukkale: Hierapolis. Eris Turizm Tic. Pazarlama.

Yayinlari, Ege. 1997. A Guide to Troia. Excavation Guides Series No. 1. University of Tubingen, Troia Project, Istanbul.

Internet resources - examples of web pages that provide additional information on these subjects include:

A Time Travel into History - Turkey http://www.twarp.com/titr/timetrav.htm

Anatolia through the Ages http://home.vicnet.net.au/~focus/civi_mn1.htm

Ancient near East Classics Site http://www.hist.unt.edu/09w-cl1.htm

Archaeological Conservation in Turkey http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/takiact/

ArchNet - Near Eastern Archaeology http:spirit.lib.uconn.edu/ArchNet/Regions/Near.html

Byzantine Architecture Project http://www.princeton.edu/~asce/const_95/const.html

Catalhoyuk http://catal.arch.cam.ac.uk/catal/catal.html

Greek & Roman Cities of Western Turkey http://rubens.anu.edu.au/turkey book/toc1.html

History & Archaeology of Turkey http://turkey-web.com/webcenter/history.htm

Mediterranean Civilizations http://home.vicnet.net.au/~focus/vivimenu.htm

Museums in Istanbul http://www.focusmm.com/istmuseu.htm